By — Means, Method, and Agent — English Grammar Exercises
by, with, for, about, of, as, like — use each one precisely
By — Means, Method, and Agent
The preposition 'by' is one of the most versatile in English, but its core function in this subtopic is clear: it signals the channel, method, or means through which something is done, and identifies the agent who performs an action in passive sentences. Corpus analysis from the British National Corpus shows that by + transport noun structures (by bus, by train, by car) are among the 50 most frequent prepositional phrases in written English, yet learners at B1–B2 regularly substitute 'with' or 'on'. The zero-article rule (by bus, not by the bus) is a second source of systematic error.
By for Transport and Communication
Use 'by' with means of transport and communication — always without an article:
We travelled to Paris by train.
I'll send the documents by email.
She confirmed the booking by phone.
By in Passive Sentences
'By' introduces the agent — the person or force responsible for the action:
This picture was painted by a local artist.
Fixed Expressions with By
He knows the poem by heart. (memorised)
We met by chance / by accident.
She paid by credit card.
Common Mistakes
✗ I contacted her with phone. → ✓ I contacted her by phone.
✗ She travelled by the bus. → ✓ She travelled by bus.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between 'by' and 'with' in English?
'By' describes a method or means — how something is done at an abstract level: 'by bus', 'by email', 'by hand', 'by mistake'. 'With' describes a tool or instrument you physically hold and use: 'with a pen', 'with scissors', 'with a spoon'. The test: if you can hold the object in your hand, use 'with'. If it's an abstract method or means of transport/communication, use 'by'. 'With' also expresses accompaniment ('with my friends') and manner ('with care').
When do you use 'as' and when do you use 'like'?
'As' introduces an actual role or function — the person or thing genuinely is what follows: 'She works as a nurse' (she IS a nurse), 'He used the chair as a table' (the chair functioned as a table). 'Like' introduces a comparison — the person or thing resembles but is not identical to what follows: 'He runs like a professional athlete' (similar, but he's not one). A common error: 'She works like a nurse' implies she is not actually a nurse. Use 'as' for real roles; 'like' for similarities.
Which preposition follows 'responsible', 'famous', and 'interested'?
These are fixed collocations: 'responsible for' (never 'about' or 'of'), 'famous for' (never 'about'), 'interested in' (never 'by' — though the Russian instrumental case suggests 'by'). Other key collocations: 'afraid of', 'proud of', 'tired of', 'good at', 'depends on', 'consists of', 'apologise for', 'thank someone for'. Learning these as complete chunks — adjective + preposition — is more reliable than trying to derive them from rules.
What is the difference between 'made of' and 'made from'?
'Made of' is used when the original material is still visible or identifiable in the final product: 'a table made of wood' (you can see the wood), 'a ring made of gold' (the gold is apparent). 'Made from' is used when the material has been completely transformed and is no longer recognisable: 'wine made from grapes' (no grapes visible), 'paper made from wood pulp'. In practice, 'made of' is the safer default for solid, visible materials.